Trastevere embodies an old world atmosphere with narrow cobblestone streets and a dynamic neighborhood. Literally meaning across the river Tiber (trans Tiberim in Latin, Tevere in Italian), the Trastevere neighborhood is sandwiched between the west bank of the river and the steep Janiculum Hill. Originally home to non-Roman outsiders, displaced Etruscans, later Jews, Syrians, then early Christians, Trastevere subsequently became home to luxurious sixteenth century palaces along the river, like the Villa Farnesina and Palazzo Corsini. Even today it has a very different look and feel from other Roman neighborhoods.
Some noteworthy early Christian churches are located in Trastevere, particularly Santa Maria in Trastevere. One of the first churches dedicated to the Virgin Mary, Santa Maria blends elements of the Roman Empire with the medieval. About 1140 Pope Innocent II re-built the church on the foundations of a much older church. Three features make this church noteworthy: the re-use of Roman building materials, the mosaics, and the visual program advancing the importance of Mary in the Catholic church.
Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome, c. 1140-1148. Exterior view. The interior combines Roman columns, twelfth century mosaics, the wooden ceiling from 1617, and nineteenth century additions including the baldacchino (altar covering).
Re-use and Recycle
The exterior has an unusual horizontal mosaic panel with the Madonna and Child flanked by ten female figures. The Romanesque bell tower stands just behind the façade. Stepping inside the portico, away from the lively piazza, the walls are embedded and stacked high with Roman, early Christian, and medieval inscriptions. These fragments are from gravestones and ancient monuments and contain recognizable early Christian symbols such as the Christos symbol and dove. The portico and four statues were added in 1702, but the mosaics on the façade are original from the 1100s. Like most churches, they were added to and “renovated” according to the tastes of the time.
Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome, c. 1140-1148. View inside the portico with fragments of inscriptions. The chi-rho (X with a P inscribed, from the Greek word Christos) is a military victory symbol used by Roman Emperor Constantine referring to victory over death. The symbol became widespread in the Christian world.
The magnificence of the glittering mosaics inside the church captures one’s attention immediately. Not to be overlooked are the stately granite columns in the nave (center aisle), arranged in pairs. The columns, entablatures, and capitals are all recycled Roman building parts. This recycling is called spolia, from the Latin spolium. The English version of the word is now used to describe the spoils of war or looting. In art history spolia describes building parts re-used in another setting.
Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome, c. 1140-1148. View as you enter the church with apse mosaics.
As the Roman Empire declined it became more difficult to import marble from great distances. It was easier to re-use what was at hand. However, this was hardly plunder, as the Romans greatly respected their culture and artistic heritage. Harvesting and re-use of marble was regulated, and eventually the pope had authority over what materials could be re-used.
Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome, c. 1140-1148. View from the altar towards the nave.
Temples, at least in Rome, were not destroyed, defaced, or burned with the rise of Christianity. Because of their size and layout, Roman empire temples were deemed inappropriate architecturally for Christian public worship. Pagan temples functioned from the exterior. Rituals were held outside and decorations were mostly on the exterior for the public. Only the Pontifex Maximus, the high priest, could enter the temple. There really wasn’t adequate public space inside. The Christian church required something different, with an interior focus for worship and a visual program to interpret scripture and church teachings.
Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome. Unfortunately, the nineteenth century altar covering obscures the mosaics unless you walk right up to the apse. The wooden ceiling designed by Domenichino with the Assumption of the Virgin Mary is from 1617.
Some temples in Rome were converted to churches, like the Pantheon, or re-constructed to fit new Christian building needs but it wasn’t common until the 11-12th centuries. The Roman basilica became the template for Christian churches, with adequate public interior space. Essentially the Roman basilica consists of a large hall used to accommodate the public for civic and administrative purposes, as the Roman basilica floor plan looks remarkably similar to a Christian church. A rounded apse at the end would usually hold a giant statue of a Roman god; the Christian church placed an altar for celebrating mass in this space. The early Christians were adept at using existing Greek and Roman visual language and re-purposing it for new intentions.
Medieval aesthetics differed from Greco-Roman desires to have uniformity in architecture. It did not matter to the Roman medieval mentality that the spolia columns were mis-matched in heights and types of granite. Generally, is difficult to know from where the spolia originated. In the case of Santa Maria, the ionic capitals in the nave were quarried from the huge Baths of Caracalla (begun in 212 CE), about a half hour walk across the Tiber.
Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome, c. 1140-1148. Detail of the spolia columns. The columns are the circular pillars, the capitals rest on top of the columns, and the entablature rests on top of the capitals. Capitals have different styles, or orders. The one on the left with two circular coils is ionic, the right capital with a leaf motif is called Corinthian.
The Mosaics
He signed his name pictor romanus, Roman painter, but we know little about the brilliant mosaic and fresco painter Pietro Cavallini (1259-c. 1330). Pope Innocent II rebuilt the church starting in 1140. Later a mosaic program depicting the life of the Virgin in the apse and arch of Santa Maria was created. I found the ornate details captivating, the colors stunning, and the gold background opulent. Cavallini was a cutting-edge artist at the time, depicting figures with mass and volume while using compositional devices and iconography from Italian as well as Byzantine art. The individual scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary would have been easily understood by medieval Christians.
Pietro Cavallini, Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome, c. 1298. Evangelists Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John on the archway wall.
Mosaic art has a long history in the Greco-Roman world and the Romans used intricate mosaic designs for flooring. Small pieces of glass or marble are cut into square shaped pieces, called tesserae, then adhered to the wall with an adhesive, such as mortar. The effect of Cavallini’s figures are such that is difficult to detect the individual tesserae as he achieves a remarkable degree of modeling and subtle color differentiation. The gold background, typical of this time period, signals a divine space surrounding the scenes.
Pietro Cavallini, Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome, c. 1298. Scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary: The Nativity, Presentation of Jesus in the Temple, Dormition of the Virgin.
Cavallini also worked in fresco and his surviving Last Judgement cycle in Santa Cecilia in Trastevere has similar attributes and style to the Santa Maria mosaics. He continued to work in Rome, then in Naples, before returning to his hometown. Mosaic work eventually lost favor to fresco, which was less labor intensive, and appropriate for decorating large interior wall spaces.
Mary’s Life – Birth to Heaven
Although there is a coin operated light to illuminate the mosaics, it is worthwhile to step inside the dark nave and experience the mosaics with the light as worshipers did in the twelfth century, the small tesserae glistening with light playing off the colorful blues, reds, gold, and greens. Out of the darkness of the church emerges the story of the Virgin Mary.
The eye is immediately drawn high up to the apse scene of Mary enthroned on the right side of Jesus. Above them appears God’s hand with a wreath. Surrounding the thrones (all nicely labeled by Cavallini) are Saints Peter, Cornelius, Julius, and Calepodius on the right and on the left Saints Calixtus, Lawrence, and Pope Innocent II holding a miniature model of the church building. Cavallini has intricately represented the fabric and folds of drapery. Although the facial features are not very individualistic, they all have different gestures and garments. However, the apse scene is the culmination of her story.
Below the enthronement is a frieze of lambs that separate the heavenly realm from Mary’s earthly story. Reading from left to right the six scenes describe the Birth of the Virgin, Annunciation, Nativity, Adoration of the Magi, Presentation of Jesus in the Temple, and the Dormition of the Virgin. Above the apse, on the wall of the arch, are evangelists Mark and Matthew on the left, and John and Luke on the right. Below the evangelists are old testament figures Isaiah on the left and Jeremiah on the right. The final scene, at the top of the apse, depicts Mary enthroned as a queen in heaven following her assumption from her dormition on earth.
Pietro Cavallini, Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome, c. 1298. Blue circles: Apostles Matthew and John; black circles: prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah; Red lines indicate the six scenes from the life of the Virgin beginning on the left with the Birth of the Virgin, Annunciation, Nativity, Adoration of the Magi, Presentation of Jesus in the Temple, and Dormition of the Virgin.
Why was the Virgin Mary the subject of these mosaics? It stems from the 431 bishop’s Council of Ephesus, held in a Turkish city known for its devotion to Mary. The early church had a lot of administrative, theological, and liturgical issues to sort out and the bishops hardly agreed on much. Although the Council members bickered and filibustered over hugely important theological issues (trying to reconcile Jesus the man and Jesus as Son of God), the only agreement reached was the divine status of Mary, ensuring that she would become a central part of the church. With her position securely endorsed, church and icon imagery quickly developed, with a devote following especially in the Eastern churches.
Churches were built in her honor and art created to inform and teach worshipers about her life. The earliest Roman church to honor her as Mother of God is the fifth century Santa Maria Maggiore (St. Mary Major), located in a bustling neighborhood just a few minutes from the Rome train station. By the eleventh and twelfth centuries the cult of Mary was prevalent in Western churches with emphasis on Mary as a majestic Queen, or enthroned holding the Christ child, an image that would prevail for centuries.
The mosaic program at Santa Maria in Trastevere acts as a picture book for the faithful to understand her birth and her place in heaven. Viewers today may benefit from a primer to understand the pictorial scheme. Here’s a synopsis of what twelfth century worshipers would have understood.
Pietro Cavallini, Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome, c. 1298. Scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary: The Nativity, Presentation of Jesus in the Temple, Dormition of the Virgin.
Birth of the Virgin: Catholic dogma states that Mary was conceived without original sin, a holiday celebrated as the Immaculate Conception in December. Her parents, Joachim and Anne, had prayed for a child for many years. An angel appeared to Anne announcing that she would conceive a child.
Annunciation: The angel Gabriel appears to Mary, seated and reading in a garden setting, meant to evoke the Garden of Eden. Gabriel announces that she will give birth to the Son of God. The Holy Spirit appears above the angel, heading directly for Mary.
Nativity: Mary and Joseph are in Bethlehem surrounded by angels and a shepherd as they adore the newborn Jesus.
Adoration of the Magi: Casper, Melchior and Balthazar, the three kings, bring gifts to Jesus. The Magi followed the star of Bethlehem to Jesus’ nativity and presented him with gold, frankincense, and myrrh.
Presentation of Jesus in the Temple: Joseph presents Jesus in the temple forty days after birth, Jesus’ first official ritual in the Jewish faith. The presentation is also Mary’s ritual purification after giving birth.
Dormition of the Virgin: Tradition says she went to Ephesus in Turkey where she fell into a state of perpetual sleep, called dormition. Her body and soul were assumed into heaven (an official dogma conferred by Pope Pius XII in 1950).
Santa Maria in Trastevere is a testament to how Romans embraced their new faith while honoring their past.
Pietro Cavallini, Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome, c. 1298. At the top of the mosaic is the Alpha and the Omega, signifying that God is the beginning and the end of all things.
Sources
Hansen, Maria Fabricius, and Barbara J. Haveland. The Spolia Churches of Rome: Recycling Antiquity in the Middle Ages. Aarhus N: Aarhus University Press, 2015.
Hetherington, Paul. “The Mosaics of Pietro Cavallini in Santa Maria in Trastevere.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, vol. 33, 1970, pp. 84–106.
Jensen, Robin Margaret. Understanding Early Christian Art. Routledge, 2000.
Wilken, Robert Louis. The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity. Yale University Press, 2012.